India is known for its fast-growing economy, but poverty remains a big issue¹. While a few have prospered, most people still find it hard to afford their daily needs. This poverty comes from many reasons over a long time. It is partly due to a system that treats people unfairly based on their family background. Also, economic issues, like pressure from other countries, mean India’s economy can be heavily influenced by others.

Key Takeaways

• India accounts for 40% of the global poverty rate of 24.1%¹.
• In South Asia, about 389 million people are living in poverty¹.
• The rate of extreme poverty in South Asia increased by 1.9 percentage points to 10.5%, with India responsible for almost 70% of this global change¹.
• Between 2012 and 2021, 40% of the wealth created in India has been captured by the wealthiest 1% of the population¹.
• The top 10% of people in India hold 77% of the nation’s wealth¹.

Understanding the Magnitude of Poverty in India

India faces a big challenge with poverty. A lot of people can’t get their basic needs. According to the World Bank, India has 40% of the world’s poor people at the $3.65 poverty line². This is over a third of the global population in poverty, which is about 389 million, with most in South Asia, specifically in India².

Key Statistics and Facts

In the year 2004-2005, 27.5% of India’s population was poor². This means over a quarter lived below the poverty line. A huge number, 301.7 million, were identified as poor².

Lowering the standard to $1 per day, around 34% were poor². This percentage jumped to 80% when the threshold was $2 per day².

By 2003, over 300 million of the 534 million people living on less than $1 per day in South Asia were in India². The Suresh Tendulkar Committee found over 430 million people (37.2%) in poverty². And according to another measure, 645 million (55.4% of the population) were below the poverty line².

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) goes beyond just income to measure poverty. It’s a deeper look at well-being. Niti Aayog’s second MPI edition shows that 14.96% of India’s people are in multidimensional poverty³. This includes factors like infant mortality and education, showing the hardships faced by many in India².

The issue of poverty has shifted attention to more inclusive growth policies in India. Now, there’s a push for spreading the benefits of economic gains wider. This means focusing on better access to roads, electricity, and schools, among other things².

Helpful strategies in India aim to improve access to key services. These include things like financial services, education, and healthcare². Creating a detailed poverty profile is crucial for making informed policy decisions, improving existing anti-poverty efforts, and launching effective new programs²³.

Causes of poverty in india

The reasons behind poverty in India are many and varied. They include a mix of population growth, social inequality, and individual struggles. Sadly, these issues combine, creating a tough problem for the nation to solve.

Demographics

India’s population is growing fast, adding stress to its resources. The 0.99% growth rate in 2020⁴ is a key factor. This growth puts more pressure on the already limited land, leading to more poverty⁴.

Social Factors

Certain social issues like the caste system and inequality between genders stand in the way of fighting poverty. Also, the effects of British rule on the economy have not helped. This history brought on resource misuse and wealth drain, making poverty worse for many⁵.

Individual Factors

At a personal level, low farm output, not enough schooling, and joblessness keep poverty going. The lack of money and the use of old farming ways make things harder for the poor⁵.

https://youtube.com/watch?v=7mZEviGQ-Tc

A mix of all these factors creates a difficult situation for India to overcome. To truly make progress in this fight, the country needs specific and broad solutions. These should address the core issues and help people live better lives⁶⁴⁵.

Limited Access to Education

In India, there’s been great progress in making more people literate. But many still can’t get a good education. This is a big issue for those who are poor. It stops them moving up in life⁷.

The quality of education varies a lot, based on where you live and who you are⁸. In states like Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, kids from certain groups do poorly in school tests⁸. But there’s some good news: In 2017, girls did just as well or better than boys on a big test. This shows that things are starting to be more fair⁸.

The COVID-19 pandemic made things even harder. With schools closed, students missed a lot of learning. It’s like they lost almost a whole year of school⁸. Plus, most schools don’t have enough computers and internet. This makes it even harder for kids to learn, especially if they are already poor⁸.

Being poor and not having enough to eat makes school difficult for many⁷. This is another big reason why some kids do poorly in school⁷. We now know that growing up poor can affect a student’s learning for a long time⁷.

To fix these problems, everyone must work together. We need better schools, more tech, and equal chances for everyone to learn. This is especially important in parts of India that don’t get much help⁸. If we do this, every child in India can get a great education and do well⁹.

Indicator	Value
Impact Factor (2020)	6.514
IC (Index Copernicus) Value	5.16
ISI (Institute for Scientific Information) Value	2.286
Volume/Issue/Year	10, 1(7), January 2021

“Poverty and education are closely linked in development. Lack of basic needs often hinders access to education for those close to the poverty line.”⁷

India’s success hinges on giving all kids a good education, no matter their family’s money⁹. By removing education barriers, we can help India’s young people shine⁸.

Unemployment and Underemployment

In India, finding work is tough due to high unemployment and many underemployed people¹⁰. Unemployment rates have moved between 4 and 5 per cent from 1972 to 1987. Meanwhile, the towns have faced more joblessness than the countryside¹⁰. Since 1983, fewer people are joining the workforce each year. In 1983, around 58% of folks aged 15-59 were part of the labor market. But by 2019, this had dropped to only 50-55%¹⁰.

The jobless situation has seen ups and downs over the years. From under 3% in the 1990s, it then rose to 5.8% in 2019. It’s now back to just below 4% this year¹⁰. Young people face a particularly tough time. The jobless rate for them went from 5.6% in 2000 to nearly 18% in 2019 before dropping a bit to 15.1% in 2020. But, there’s still a significant gap between males and females in terms of who gets to join the workforce¹⁰.

Employment Landscape

Things get even more complex due to more educated young folks being out of work¹⁰. For those with at least a high school education, 18.4% can’t find jobs. For college graduates, this number is even higher, showing a major issue¹⁰. There’s also a problem with not enough jobs making full use of people’s skills. This underemployment rose from 8.1% in 2012 to 9.1% in 2019, then dropped to 7.5% in 2022¹⁰.

Job chances are not spread evenly throughout India. Some areas and young people have a harder time finding jobs¹¹. Many families in India, around 77%, struggle with irregular incomes. This adds to the poverty problem¹¹.

Now, new tech like automation and AI are changing the job landscape. Indutries like cars and telecom might use more automation. This could mean fewer jobs for people¹⁰. Alongside, there’s a growing gap between the rich and the average Indian. The top 1% earn and own a lot more than everyone else. These changes show why we need big plans to tackle job and underemployment issues in India¹⁰.

“The unemployment crisis in India is a multifaceted challenge that requires a holistic approach to address the underlying causes and create sustainable job opportunities.”

Inadequate Healthcare Infrastructure

India’s healthcare system struggles to meet the needs of its people, especially those in poverty. This challenge is made worse by the uneven spread of healthcare between cities and the countryside¹². Most of the healthcare resources, around 75%, are in urban areas. Yet, only 27% of the people live there. This leaves almost 900,000,000 people in rural areas with little access to good healthcare¹².

The lack of healthcare in rural India shows in the health of its people. Babies are more likely to die early there. They also have bigger health problems like anemia, lower weight at birth, and fewer immunizations. Plus, they visit the doctor less often¹². Women in rural places face even bigger health risks. They can’t easily get mother and baby care. Plus, healthcare is often too expensive for them¹².

The short supply of healthcare workers and places in rural India is worrying¹². The country needs more primary health centers. It also needs more community health centers. It has fewer than it should by government guidelines. What’s worse, many centers lack essential staff. For example, 8% of primary centers don’t have a doctor. Also, 38% don’t have a lab tech, and 22% lack a pharmacist¹².

Healthcare costs are a big problem for India’s poor¹³. Almost all medical visits in India are from rural areas, which are far from healthcare centers. Most costs come right out of pocket. This can push families into poverty. Research shows how big healthcare bills can bring families to financial ruin¹³.

India’s healthcare system is far from enough, especially for those who need it most. Fixing the gap in healthcare quality and access is vital. It can help all the people of India live healthier lives, especially the poor. Solving these issues is key to making India a better place for everyone¹²¹³.

“The lack of access to quality healthcare is a significant contributor to the cycle of poverty in India. Addressing the inadequacies in the healthcare system is crucial for improving the lives of the country’s most vulnerable populations.”

Social Inequality and Discrimination

In India, issues like caste, gender, and ethnic discrimination have created hurdles for many. These barriers make it hard for marginalized people to move up the social and economic ladder¹⁴. The country’s caste system, for example, mostly affects women and kids. It keeps them poor, and this poverty often stays in families for generations¹⁴. Women face more poverty than men, showing a clear gap in fairness¹⁴.

Caste System

The caste system is a big problem in India. It’s a ladder where some groups are much lower down. Those at the bottom earned only 55% of what better-off groups made in 2018-2019¹⁴. This shows the ongoing struggles of those sidelined by the caste system.

Gender Inequality

Another pressing issue is gender inequality. This affects women more, creating big gaps in opportunities and earnings¹⁴. In 2018-2019, women earned only 63% of what men did in India¹⁴. This is due to women taking on most domestic duties and facing challenges in getting an education or good healthcare.

“The caste system and gender inequality have been entrenched in Indian society for centuries, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and discrimination that is deeply rooted and challenging to overcome.”¹⁵

The effect of these social problems is wide-ranging. They lead to more poverty, worse health, and less education and jobs for the marginalized. Mortality rate differences between higher-caste Hindus and those from marginalized groups are also significant¹⁶. This shows how deeply these issues affect people, regardless of their financial situation.

To fight these problems, India needs many strategies. These include changes in policies, more education, and programs that help marginalized groups¹⁵. Solving these deep-rooted issues is key to fair and equal growth for everyone in the country¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶.

Poor Agricultural Productivity

Agriculture is the mainstay for India. Yet, old farming methods, low output, and small land holdings cause poverty among farmers¹⁷. About 75% of families depend on agriculture¹⁷. While 770 million people, 70% of India’s poor, live in rural areas¹⁷. Since most people work in farming, low productivity leads to widespread poverty.

India boasts a large agricultural sector, spanning over 195 million hectares. Most farms rely on rainfall (63%), with some having irrigation (37%)¹⁷. The country leads in milk, pulses, and spices production¹⁷, but cereal crops grow slowly, by only 1.4% yearly in the 2000s¹⁷. Indian rice yields are much lower than China’s and somewhat less than Vietnam and Indonesia¹⁷. This shows the struggles of India’s farms.

Over a quarter of the farm’s income comes from livestock¹⁷. It helps 70% of rural families, especially women¹⁷. Milk production increases by 4% each year¹⁷, pointing to its role in fighting poverty¹⁷. But, farmers find it hard to get money for their work, slowing down their progress¹⁷.

Agriculture in India meets many challenges, like water shortage and too much reliance on help¹⁷. To overcome these, focused policies and investments in new farming ways, infrastructure, and finance are crucial¹⁷. This step is key to enhancing agriculture’s output and cutting down poverty in rural parts.

“Improving agricultural productivity is essential for addressing poverty in rural India, as the majority of the population still relies on farming as their primary source of income.”

To fix poor agricultural output, we need a comprehensive plan. This strategy includes:

• Adopting modern farming methods to raise crop and livestock yield
• Improving farmer’s finance access for better farming investments
• Bettering water systems and water use for more crops sustainably
• Encouraging growth of valuable crops to lift farmers’ incomes
• Offering targeted help and programs to aid farmers in shifting to better practices

By tackling the causes of low farm output, India can boost its agriculture for more benefits. Focusing on updates and variety is vital for the millions that rely on farming for a living and the whole nation’s food assurance.

Unequal Distribution of Assets and Income

In India, a small percentage of people control most of the wealth. This makes it hard for others to get essential resources and chances. It was reported in the Harvard Business Review that the top 10% in India own 77% of the wealth¹⁸. In 2023, there were 271 billionaires in the country, with 94 new ones joining. Together, they own almost $1 trillion, which is 7% of all wealth globally¹⁸.

Wealth Concentration

The wealth gap in India is very large. The richest 1% there own 22.6% of the income. That’s more than the period between the world wars when it was about 20-21%¹⁸. This 1% also has 40.1% of all wealth¹⁸. Since 1991, Indian billionaires’ wealth has gone from less than 1% of the national income to 25% in 2022¹⁸.

This inequality is due to crony capitalism and inheritance. It’s widened the gap between the rich and the poor. The rich have been getting richer much quicker than those who barely earn enough, making things even more unfair over the last 30 years¹⁹.

“A ‘super tax’ of 2% on the net wealth of the 167 wealthiest Indian families in 2022-23 could generate 0.5% of national income in revenues.”¹⁸

Such a gap in wealth and income affects many parts of life in India. It makes it harder for most people to get good healthcare and education. To fix this, India needs to change its tax system and invest more in social programs.

Lack of Basic Infrastructure

People in remote India often lack things like proper power, sewage, and clean water systems²⁰. Not having these basics makes it harder to fight poverty²⁰.

Places without good infrastructure are usually poorer and face more challenges²¹. Having these systems in place makes life better for everyone in India²¹. Unfortunately, many areas, like Jharkhand, still don’t have enough of these services²¹.

Tribal areas suffer a lot because they lack proper infrastructure²¹. For example, people from the Adivasi community in Jharkhand and Odisha earn less than others in rural India²¹. More Adivasi families in these states also struggle to get enough food²¹.

The government knows it needs to fix this and plans to spend a lot of money on it²⁰. But, completing projects in India is tough and often faces problems²⁰.

India hopes to grow economically by improving its infrastructure²⁰. Doing this could boost the country’s GDP by more than 8%²⁰. It’s also key for India to reach its goal of zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2070²⁰.

India’s issues with infrastructure have made poverty worse and slowed down its growth²⁰²¹. Fixing these problems is essential to help India’s most in-need communities²⁰²¹.

“India’s economic growth has been affected by the pandemic, with private consumption hampered by a lack of jobs and wider income inequalities.”²⁰

Indicator	Jharkhand	Odisha
Average annual income of Adivasi households	Rs 75,378	Rs 61,263
Percentage of Adivasi households facing food insecurity	53%	55%
Percentage of Adivasi households facing severe food insecurity	25%	12%

The table shows a big gap between Adivasi households in Jharkhand and Odisha and others in India²¹. This gap tells us how essential it is to improve infrastructure in these areas²¹.

India has struggled with its infrastructure, affecting its trade with other countries²⁰. There have been delays and issues in projects²⁰. Yet, efforts to change this and build better roads have started showing good progress²⁰.

The Emerging Markets Institute at Cornell University offers a chance for students to learn about infrastructure in countries like India²⁰. It shows how important infrastructure is for the future of places like India²⁰.

Improving infrastructure in India can break the cycle of poverty and help the economy grow²⁰²¹. This issue is key in making life better for millions²⁰²¹.

Corruption and Governance Issues

Corruption is a big problem in India, and it’s making poverty worse²². Even though the government says it’s working hard to stop corruption, nothing much seems to change. Corruption stops efforts to help poor people²².

The number of corruption cases in India has shot up in recent years²³. Between 1990 and 1999, there were only 800 cases. But by 2010-2019, there were nearly 7,000 cases. This shows a big increase over the decades²³.

One part of the law that targets public servants has also seen more use²³. Almost 70% of these cases came after 2010. However, the law was changed in 2018. Now, public servants are not charged for getting valuable items without a good reason. But this change might affect how motivated public servants are to solve development problems²³.

India is trying many things to fight corruption, like making laws to protect whistleblowers and passing the Right to Information law. They’re also using digital tools and even canceled some currency notes to catch the corrupt²³. But, their work to make doing business easier by removing old laws hasn’t made much of a difference. This is because the laws they removed were mostly changes to existing laws²³.

To beat corruption in India, they need to address the root causes²³. This includes improving how the government works, changing laws to limit the government’s powers, and making sure anti-corruption actions don’t stop public workers from looking for smart development solutions²³.

“Corruption is one of the biggest obstacles to economic and social development. It undermines development by distorting the rule of law and weakening the institutional foundation on which economic growth depends.”
– World Bank

Effects of poverty in india

The effects of poverty in India are huge and touch many parts of life, like health, society, and the economy²⁴. Over 800 million people live in poverty in India. More than 30% of them live on $1.25 or less a day²⁴.

Health Consequences

Trouble getting good healthcare really hurts the poor²⁴. India has a high rate of babies dying young, about 1.4 million each year. This shows how hard it is for poor families to stay healthy²⁴. Over 200 million people in India don’t have enough food, 61 million of them children. This leads to many not getting the right nutrition, which causes health issues²⁴.

Societal Impact

India’s poverty also causes problems like child work, not enough schooling, and a gap between men and women²⁴. About 12.5 million Indian kids work, with guesses suggesting that up to 65 million actually do²⁴. Also, 1 in 4 Indian kids can’t go to school, and more girls miss out than boys²⁴. Besides, many girls get married young. 44.5% of them marry before they’re legally old enough²⁴.

Economic Repercussions

India’s poverty also hurts its economy²⁵. People not having things like roads and clean water means they can’t work productively. This makes poverty keep happening²⁵. But there’s some good news. India has been reducing how many people are poor. For example, from 2011 to 2023, the poverty levels for different incomes have gone down²⁵.

To truly fight poverty in India, we need to work on several fronts. The government, along with groups in society and the international community, must join hands. Together, they can improve basic services, offer work opportunities, and help the most at-risk people stand up on their own²⁴²⁵.

“Poverty is not just about lack of money. It is about lack of power, choice and opportunity.” – Amartya Sen, Nobel Laureate in Economics

Poverty Alleviation Programs and Initiatives

In India, there are many government programs helping people fight poverty. These programs do a lot, like creating jobs, making sure poor families have homes, and building better places for everyone. They cover a lot of different areas²⁶.

Government Schemes

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is key. It was started in 2005. It promises 100 days of work a year for each rural family²⁶. Another important program is the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana. It helps build houses for those who need them, both in the countryside and in the cities²⁶. Then there’s the IRDP. Since 1978, it’s been creating chances for poor families to work for themselves²⁶²⁷.

There are also projects like the NFBS. It gives families Rs. 20,000 if the main breadwinner dies²⁶. The NOAPS helps seniors over 60 who live in poverty by giving them a monthly pension²⁶.

Non-Governmental Organizations

Outside of government work, NGOs in India are making big impacts too. Take Outreach International, for example. They help people in poor communities help themselves. By working with Outreach India, they’re solving local poverty challenges together. They do things like providing clean water with solar pumps and lights for safer streets. They also support efforts for better community sanitation²⁷.

Outreach International also assists disabled people. They help them get benefits that meet their basic needs. This support gives them a brighter outlook on the future²⁷.

“Outreach International works tirelessly to empower people to help themselves.”

These combined government and NGO efforts are making a difference. They focus on education, skills, and making sure everyone has access to money services. This all helps in the fight against poverty²⁶²⁷.

Empowering Communities through Grassroots Development

In India, grassroots initiatives are changing how we fight poverty. They let local people tackle their own issues. This approach isn’t just quick to act on problems. It also makes locals feel they own the solutions and builds their strength²⁸.

One great success story is the Tej Kohli & Ruit Foundation. It’s helped rural and faraway places in Asia and Africa by fixing cataract blindness. More than 40,000 have been cured, showing how community efforts can better healthcare right where it’s needed²⁸.

In Kenya, the Green Belt Movement has planted many trees through local efforts. This shows how communities can fight nature problems and grow in a good, lasting way²⁸. In India, the Barefoot College teaches village women to be solar engineers. This brings clean power and new jobs, making communities stronger²⁸.

Grassroots groups aren’t just helping with health and nature. They’re also working on education, fairness for women, and helping children learn. Teaming up with groups like HCP Cureblindness is letting NGOs do more good, reaching more people²⁸.

These community-level efforts are proving huge in the fight against poverty. By giving local people the tools to tackle their own issues, they are doing more than just ending poverty. They are helping build lasting solutions and independence²⁸.

“Grassroots initiatives are agile and responsive, allowing them to address specific local challenges effectively.”²⁸

The key is working together. Governments, NGOs, and communities help each other plan, share resources, and make better choices based on what works. This mix of everyone’s know-how can create fixes for poverty that really last in India²⁹.

Discovering new ways to fight poverty shows just how powerful community-led work can be. It’s changing the lives of those left behind. And it’s opening doors to a better, fairer future for all²⁸.

Sustainable Solutions for Poverty Reduction

To fight poverty in India, we need a plan that looks at many factors. This plan should focus on education, helping people become part of the economy, and empowering women³⁰.

Education and Skill Development

One big step is making sure everyone can get a good education and learn useful skills. This gives people the tools they need to make more money and break out of poverty. Projects are working on this by teaching reading, job skills, and making people ready for work³⁰.

Financial Inclusion

Another key is making sure everyone can use banking and get loans. This opens the door for people to save, start their own businesses, and stay financially secure³⁰.

Women’s Empowerment

Supporting women is crucial because they often bear the heaviest burden in poverty. Giving women chances to learn, work for themselves, and be leaders at home and in their communities is vital for fair, lasting change³⁰.

Working on all these parts together helps India move forward in fighting poverty³⁰.

“Sustainable development is the pathway to the future we want for all. It offers a framework to generate economic growth, achieve social justice, exercise environmental stewardship and strengthen governance.”
– Ban Ki-moon, Former Secretary-General of the United Nations

The End Poverty in India group is at the front line, running comprehensive programs. These efforts focus on key areas, lifting communities and reducing poverty in many states³⁰.

The effort to reduce poverty in India is complex but achievable. By working together on education, helping people find their place in the economy, and supporting women, we can see real, long-lasting changes³⁰.

Conclusion

Poverty in India is a big issue, hurting many people. To overcome it, we must identify its causes, deal with the outcomes, and help empower people³¹. This way, the country can become fairer and wealthier for all.

The fight against poverty needs a big plan. It should deal with many reasons for poverty, like more people moving to cities and low farm wages³¹. Also, we have to handle the unequal sharing of money and assets³². Everyone, from the government to charities and people, must keep working together. This way, India can help its citizens live better lives, with less poverty around.

India’s literacy rate is at 74.37%³³. Unfortunately, 8.10% of its workers can’t find jobs³³. We see that making education, jobs, and income fairer is key to beating poverty³³. By investing in education, helping people land jobs, and making sure everyone has a chance, we can improve the country for everyone³². The mission against poverty in India is everyone’s task. Through hard work, we can make India’s bright future come true.

FAQ

What are the key statistics and facts about poverty in India?

India has a big role in the world’s poverty, with 40% of people living under the $3.65 line. Many of these people are in South Asia, about 389 million. This area saw an increase in extreme poverty, with 10.5% living on less than $2.15. India was key to this, making up nearly 70% of that change.

What are the main causes of poverty in India?

Several factors contribute to poverty in India. These include a lack of quality education access, scarce job opportunities, poor healthcare systems, and social discrimination. Other reasons are low farm output, unequal wealth and asset distribution, missing basic services, and government corruption.

How does limited access to education contribute to poverty in India?

Many in India still lack good education, especially in rural areas. This prevents them from getting better jobs and breaking the poverty cycle.

What are the effects of poverty in India?

Poverty in India causes a wide range of problems. It leads to an unequal society, health barriers, high child death rates, crime, and terrorism. It also slows down the country’s economic growth and keeps many people deprived.

What are some of the poverty alleviation programs and initiatives in India?

India is fighting poverty with many programs. These include help for the poor, job creation, and building roads and schools. NGOs like Outreach International also play a big role by working directly with communities to fight poverty.

How can sustainable solutions for poverty reduction in India be achieved?

To fight poverty in India for the long term, many steps are needed. These include better education, jobs, financial services, and supporting women’s rights. It will take work from the government, NGOs, and local people working together for real and fair change.

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26. https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/policies-and-programmes-towards-poverty-alleviation/ – Poverty Alleviation-List of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India (UPSC Polity Notes)
27. https://unacademy.com/content/kerala-psc/study-material/extension-education-and-communication/poverty-alleviation-programmes-in-india/ – Poverty alleviation programmes in India
28. https://mrtejkohli.medium.com/empowering-communities-exploring-the-power-of-grassroots-initiatives-b18cd12b9a8f – Empowering Communities: Exploring the Power of Grassroots Initiatives
29. https://www.mahilahousingtrust.org/empowering-communities-a-deep-dive-into-indias-participatory-governance/ – Empowering Communities: Deep Dive into India’s Participatory Governance
30. https://borgenproject.org/end-poverty-in-india/ – 4 Poverty Reduction Programs to End Poverty in India – The Borgen Project
31. https://www.toppr.com/guides/essays/poverty-in-india-essay/ – Poverty in India Essay for Students and Children | 500+ Words Essay
32. https://www.theindiaforum.in/economy/poverty-india-over-last-decade – Poverty in India Over the Last Decade
33. https://www.aeaweb.org/conference/2024/program/paper/Bnt5DekH – PowerPoint Presentation